The history of Ottoman revolts and coups dates back to the "Buçuktepe Rebellion" in 1446, during the first reign of Fatih, and continues until the decline of the empire. Nearly every Ottoman sultan faced rebellion after Mehmed the Conqueror, with 12 out of 36 sultans losing their thrones due to coups.
One crucial factor in preventing riots and coups was the need for swift action by those responsible for suppressing the uprising. Delays in quelling the rebellion often resulted in its success. Any hesitation or inaction in formulating a response worked against the leaders and in favor of the rebels.
Sultans who procrastinated in making decisions faced the consequence of being dethroned. For instance, II. Osman, Sultan Ibrahim, II. Mustafa, III. Ahmed, and III. Selim lost their thrones because they failed to promptly suppress the rebels. Conversely, rulers like Kanuni and Mahmud I, who effectively quelled rebellions without allowing them to grow and gain public support, managed to protect their reigns.
Sultans who initially ascended the throne through rebellion often became inactive and ineffective against those who facilitated their rise to power. However, since the new sultans aimed to consolidate their authority without sharing power, they would eventually take action to eliminate those who helped them initially.
The influence of Patrona Halil, who played a significant role in the state administration after the rebellion that ended the Tulip Era in 1730, was short-lived. Mahmud I recognized that he could not establish his power as long as coup plotters remained. Disturbed by the rebels' actions, Mahmud I arranged a trap and had Patrona Halil and his associates killed on November 25, 1730, two months after the rebellion.
Following the elimination of the rebel group, those who managed to escape secretly prepared to seek revenge. However, the new Grand Vizier, Kabakulak İbrahim Pasha, received information about their activities through his agents. On March 27, 1731, the Grand Vizier urgently summoned the Janissary Agha, Abdullah Pasha, and other landlords to his mansion. He ordered swift action and a thorough inspection of the entire city by morning. Unfortunately, no one heeded this warning, and the ordered precautions were not taken.
Aware of the meeting at the Grand Vizier's mansion, the rebels quickly gathered and stormed Ağakapısı. They proceeded to raid Cebehane and seize weapons, reminiscent of the initial stages of the Patrona rebellion. As the revolt spread gradually, Mahmud I called upon all state dignitaries to gather at Topkapı Palace. Understanding the consequences of previous delays, the Grand Vizier insisted on immediate action to remove the rebels' influence. The palace soldiers were armed, and at daybreak, a decision was made to confront the rebels in Etmeydanı. The Sancak-ı Şerif (sacred banner) was displayed, and people were summoned to gather under its protection. Unlike the Patrona Rebellion, upon hearing the announcement, the city's residents flocked to the banner with weapons in hand.
With the Sancak-ı Şerif leading the way, the Grand Vizier, palace soldiers, and the people of Istanbul marched towards Etmeydanı. The rebels opened fire on the crowd, but when the people refused to disperse, the rebels targeted the Sancak-ı Şerif. This enraged the people, and those who managed to escape the rebels fled, while those who were caught were lynched.
In August 1731, the rebels began preparing for another revolt. However, their plans were discovered quickly, and the ringleaders were captured, preventing the rebellion from gaining momentum. As a result of subsequent investigations, hundreds of people were punished for their involvement in the failed rebellion attempt.
During the war with Austria and Russia between 1736-1739, the Ottoman Empire achieved victory and recaptured Belgrade. After peace treaties were signed, many demobilized soldiers flocked to Istanbul, and the city's population increased due to war-related migration.
The influx of migrants created difficulties in meeting Istanbul's food needs during the winter of 1739. Despite the measures taken, the increasing distress and the rise of a black market led to a significant increase in arson incidents in the city. On June 6, 1740, a major rebellion erupted in Istanbul as a result of unresolved issues.
The rebellion initially started in the Sipahi Bazaar, where a small number of rebels looted shops and forced the shopkeepers to close. When the rebellion broke out, Mahmud I was on a tour at Hünkar İskelesi. The Grand Vizier Hacı İvaz Mehmed Pasha was in Sadabad, which resulted in delayed intervention.
Upon returning to the palace, Mahmud I discussed the situation with the statesmen and decided to eliminate the rebels by dispatching patrols throughout the city. On the night of June 6, 1740, raids were carried out, resulting in the arrest and, in some cases, the killing of rebels. Thus, the rebellion was extinguished as quickly as it had begun.
Mahmud I was born in Edirne, and the early years of his life were spent there. His education began under the supervision of Şeyhülislâm Feyzullah Efendi, with the ceremony held in Edirne Palace on May 18, 1702, in the presence of his father, Mustafa II, and attended by the Second Mustafa. İbrahim Efendi, the son of Feyzullah Efendi, continued his education.
At the age of seven, Mahmud I was imprisoned in the palace in Istanbul when his father, Mustafa II, was dethroned in 1703. During his 27-year imprisonment, he worked as a jeweler. He ascended the throne in Edirne after his uncle, Ahmed III, was dethroned in 1730 as a result of the Patrona rebellion.
Mahmud I, described as thin and short, was known for his philanthropy, his involvement in state affairs, and his attentiveness to the concerns of the people. He actively participated in council meetings and had a firm hand against those who disturbed the peace. Mahmud I enjoyed activities such as javelin throwing, horseback riding, and swimming. He displayed harshness towards those who plotted against him. Mahmud I had an interest in jewelry, poetry, and music, using the pen name "Sebkati" for his poems, which included both Turkish and Arabic verses. He had a passion for flowers, particularly tulips, and was an avid chess player.
During his reign, the Ottoman Empire achieved victory in the war with Austria and Russia between 1736 and 1739, recapturing Belgrade and Sebeş, which had been lost in 1718. This victory marked the empire's last major triumph achieved independently. A treaty was signed in 1746, ending the 23-year-long Iranian wars.
Although not widely known, Mahmud I is considered one of the most successful sultans in Ottoman history.
* This article has been written by Sabah columnist Prof Dr Erhan Afyoncu
